4.25 Sexual Exploitation and Abuse (including Organised Abuse)

1. Definition

Guidance – Child Sexual Exploitation: Definition and Guide for Practitioners (Department for Education) and Working Together to Safeguard Children (Department for Education) define child sexual exploitation (CSE) as a form of child sexual abuse. It occurs where an individual or group takes advantage of an imbalance of power to coerce, manipulate or deceive a child or young person under the age of 18 into sexual activity:

1. in exchange for something the victim needs or wants; and / or
2. for the financial advantage or increased status of the perpetrator or facilitator.

The victim may have been sexually exploited even if the sexual activity appears consensual. CSE does not always involve physical contact; it can also occur through the use of technology.

Like all forms of child sexual abuse, CSE:

• can affect any child or young person (of any gender identity) under the age of 18 years, including 16 and 17 year olds who can legally consent to have sex;
• can still be abuse even if the sexual activity appears consensual;
• can include both contact (penetrative and non-penetrative acts) and non-contact sexual activity;
• can take place in person or via technology, or a combination of both;
• can involve force and / or enticement based methods of compliance and may, or may not, be accompanied by violence or threats of violence;
• may occur without the child or young person’s immediate knowledge (through others copying videos or images they have created and posting on social media, for example);
• can be perpetrated by individuals or groups, males or females and children or adults. The abuse can be a one-off occurrence or a series of incidents over time, and range from opportunistic to complex organised abuse; and
• is typified by some form of power imbalance in favour of those perpetrating the abuse. Whilst age may be the most obvious, this power imbalance can also be due to a range of other factors including gender, sexual identity, cognitive ability, physical strength, status, and access to economic or other resources.

Even where a young person is old enough to legally consent to sexual activity, the law states that consent is only valid where they make a choice and have the freedom and capacity to make that choice. If a child feels they have no other meaningful choice, are under the influence of harmful substances or fearful of what might happen if they do not comply (all of which are common features in cases of child sexual exploitation) consent cannot legally be given whatever the age of the child.

One of the key factors found in most cases of CSE is the presence of some form of exchange (sexual activity in return for something) for the victim and / or perpetrator or facilitator.

Where it is the victim who is offered, promised or given something they need or want, the exchange can include both physical rewards (such as money, drugs or alcohol) and psychological rewards (such as status, protection or perceived receipt of love or affection). It is important to remember the unequal power dynamic within which this exchange occurs and to remember that the receipt of something by a child / young person does not make them any less of a victim. It is also important to note that the prevention of something negative can also fulfil the requirement for exchange, for example a child who engages in sexual activity to stop someone carrying out a threat to harm their family.

2. Vulnerabilities

Many children who are sexually exploited may have been victims of other forms of abuse; the grooming methods that may be used can mean that children who are sexually exploited do not always recognise they are being abused, which can also affect detection rates. What is clear is that child sexual exploitation can occur in all communities and amongst all social groups and can affect girls and boys. All practitioners should work on the basis that it is happening in their area.

2.1 Who is vulnerable to child sexual exploitation?

Any child, in any community: All practitioners should be open to the possibility that the children they work with might be affected.

Age: Children aged 12-15 years of age are most at risk of CSE although victims may be much younger, particularly in relation to online concerns. Equally, those aged 16 or above can also experience CSE, and it is important that such abuse is not overlooked due to assumed capacity to consent. Account should be taken of heightened risks amongst this age group, particularly those without adequate economic or systemic support.

Gender: Though CSE may be most frequently observed amongst young females, boys are also at risk. Practitioners should be alert to the fact that boys may be less likely than females to disclose experiences of child sexual exploitation and less likely to have these identified by others.

Ethnicity: CSE affects all ethnic groups.

CSE is often linked to other issues in the life of a child or young person, or in the wider community context. Practitioners should be alert to the fact that CSE is complex and rarely presents in isolation of other needs and risks of harm (although this may not always be the case, particularly in relation to online abuse). CSE may be linked to other crimes and practitioners should be mindful that a child who may present as being involved in criminal activity is actually being exploited.

CSE can have links to other types of crime. These include:

• child trafficking;
• domestic abuse;
• sexual violence in intimate relationships;
• grooming (including online grooming);
• abusive images of children and their distribution;
• drugs related offences;
• gang related activity;
• immigration related offences; and
• domestic servitude.

The following vulnerabilities are examples of the types of things children can experience that might make them more susceptible to CSE:

• having a prior experience of neglect, physical and / or sexual abuse;
• lack of a safe / stable home environment, now or in the past (domestic abuse or parental substance misuse, mental health issues or criminality, for example);
• recent bereavement or loss;
• social isolation or social difficulties;
• absence of a safe environment to explore sexuality;
• economic vulnerability;
• homelessness or insecure accommodation status;
• connections with other children and young people who are being sexually exploited;
• family members or other connections involved in adult sex work;
• having a physical or learning disability;
• being looked after (particularly those in residential care and those with interrupted care histories); and
• sexual identity.

Not all children and young people with these vulnerabilities will experience child sexual exploitation. CSE can also occur without any of these vulnerabilities being present.

3.     Methods of Coercing Victims

The vulnerability of many victims makes them particularly susceptible to the grooming tactics used by offenders. Most victims are groomed to a certain extent by their exploiter, who will use various persuasive methods to control them and keep them in exploitative situations. This may include encouraging the victim to play a participatory role in the production of indecent images and / or to recruit other victims to participate in the activity.

Offenders exploit their victims further by creating or exacerbating vulnerabilities that they have in order to retain control over them. Vulnerabilities include disengagement from friends and family, detachment from services and challenging or criminal behaviour.

The following methods can also be used to coerce a victim:

• gifts – especially in the grooming phase;
• food treats;
• rewards, for example, mobile phone top-ups;
• giving the child or young person attention (for example, listening to them or showing an interest in them or what they are doing);
• false promises of love and / or affection;
• false promises of opportunities, for example, modelling, photography, acting;
• alcohol;
• drugs – either supply or paying off drug debt;
• paying off debt;
• mental manipulation;
• blackmail;
• fear;
• physical violence.

This is not an exhaustive list and not all the methods listed will be used, or occur in the order above.

4. Indicators

Children are often reluctant to disclose experiences of exploitation for a variety of reasons including:

• fear of their exploiters;
• fearing their sexuality will be questioned;
• loyalty that they believe they have to their exploiters;
• failing to perceive themselves as a victim of exploitation (owing to the methods of coercion / grooming the offender(s) uses);
• believing that they are in a consensual relationship and perceiving sexual activity as a normal part of the relationship;
• being unable to express the exploitation / abuse;
• believing they have acted voluntarily;
• negative perceptions or fears that they have about authorities;
• not being aware of the help that is available to them;
• the fear of not being believed;
• feeling ashamed or embarrassed about what is happening or what has happened to them;
• the fear of bringing shame to their family because of cultural / religious beliefs.

It is important that practitioners are aware of potential indicators of risk, as categorised in responding to Child Sexual Exploitation (College of Policing) and outlined below.

4.1 Emotional and behavioural development

Signs include:

• changes in temperament or suffering from depression, mood swings or changes in emotional wellbeing;
• secretive behaviour;
• peers and friends – association with other young people involved in exploitation and having older boyfriends / girlfriends;
• getting involved in petty crime such as shoplifting or stealing.

4.2 Education

Signs include:

• being absent and showing signs of disengagement, for example, lack of interest and frequent poor behaviour;
• considerable change in performance.

4.3 Identity

Signs include:

• appearing with unexplained gifts or new possessions;
• change in appearance, for example, different clothes.

4.4 Family and social relationships

Signs include:

• children or young people who become estranged from their family;
• sudden hostility towards family members;
• becoming physically aggressive towards family and friends;
• going missing for periods of time or regularly returning home late;
• involvement in exploitative relationships or association with adults considered to be a risk to children and young people;
• young people being found in towns or districts where they have no known connection;
• young people who have more than one boyfriend / girlfriend or who share their boyfriend / girlfriend;
• children or young people seen entering or leaving vehicles driven by unknown adults;
• becoming detached from age related activities and social groups;
• being sexually active;
• receiving phone calls and / or text messages from unknown adults;
• children or young people who appear to be recruiting others into exploitative situations.

4.5 Health

Signs include:

• evidence of drug, alcohol and / or substance use – abusers may use drugs and alcohol to help control children and young people;
• unexplained physical injuries or suffering from physical injuries (for example, bruising suggestive of either physical or sexual assault);
• children or young people who are self-harming and demonstrating suicidal thoughts and tendencies;
• recurring sexually transmitted infections;
• pregnancy or seeking an abortion;
• children or young people displaying inappropriate sexualised behaviours, such as being over familiar with strangers or sending sexualised images via the internet or mobile phones;
• changes in physical appearance (for example, losing weight, being malnourished).

Practitioners should also remain open to the fact that CSE can occur without any of these risk indicators being obviously present.

The first step for practitioners is to be alert to the potential signs of abuse and neglect. Those working with children and families should access training to support them in identifying vulnerability, risk and harm.

5. Types of Child Sexual Exploitation

Child sexual exploitation can take place in a variety of ways. Responding to Child Sexual Exploitation (College of Policing) lists examples, but practitioners should note that this is not intended to be exhaustive and should be aware of this form of exploitation.

The act of CSE is generally a hidden activity and is much more likely to occur in private dwellings than in public venues. Technology can be used to facilitate sexual exploitation of children. This can include social networking tools and platforms, chat rooms, dating sites, online gaming, GPS technology to track locations and sharing of abusive images online. See also Internet Safety chapter.

The following examples describe different types of exploitation which offenders use and how children can be coerced.

Inappropriate relationships: These usually involve one offender who has inappropriate power or control over a young person (physical, emotional or financial). One indicator may be a significant age gap. The young person may believe they are in a loving relationship.

Boyfriend / girlfriend model: Here the offender befriends and grooms a young person into a ‘relationship’ and then coerces or forces them to have sex with friends or associates. The boyfriend/girlfriend may be significantly older than the victim, but not always.

Gang-associated CSE: A child or young person can be sexually exploited by a gang, but this is not necessarily the reason why gangs are formed. Types of exploitation may include using sex as a weapon between rival gangs, as a form of punishment to fellow gang members and / or a means of gaining status within the hierarchy of the gang. Where abuse takes place in a gang environment, female members may perceive the abuse as normal, as well as accepting it as a way of achieving a respected status / title within the gang.

Organised / networked sexual exploitation or trafficking: Involves people who come together in person or online for the purpose of setting up, co-ordinating and / or taking part in the sexual exploitation of children in either an organised or opportunistic way. Young people (often connected) may be passed through networks, possibly over geographical distances, between towns and cities where they may be forced / coerced into sexual activity with multiple men. Often this occurs at ‘parties’, and young people who are involved may recruit others into the network. Some of this activity is described as serious organised crime and can involve the organised ‘buying and selling’ of young people by offenders. Organised exploitation varies from spontaneous networking between groups of offenders, to more serious organised crime where young people are effectively ‘sold’. Organised sexual exploitation and / or trafficking by groups is a sophisticated and complex area of CSE.

Peer-on-peer abuse: When a young person is exploited by their peer/s, the abuser is the same age, or close in age to them. At the very least, everyone directly involved in the abuse is under 18 years of age. They are forced or coerced into sexual activity by their peers or associates. Sometimes this can be associated with gang activity but not always. Many of the warning signs and indicators of CSE tend to refer to adult perpetrators, for example, associations with older boyfriends / girlfriends, relationships or associations with risky adults and / or entering or leaving vehicles driven by unknown adults. In peer-on-peer exploitation, schools and youth clubs are also locations where children and young people can be exploited. To help disrupt cases of peer-on-peer exploitation, consideration may need to be given to:

• the impact on the school environment when both perpetrators and victims are in the same school;
• managing investigations when associates linked to perpetrators are able to threaten victims and witnesses;
• additional measures required to prove lack of consent when all those involved are less than 18 years.

Repeat victimisation: There are some features of repeat victimisation of CSE victims which are distinctive. CSE victims may return to perpetrators for a range of reasons, for example, as a result of grooming, out of fear, drug addiction, needing accommodation, out of a sense of loyalty or perceived affection towards their perpetrators.

6. Children who are Perpetrators as well as being Victims

Children can be both experiencing child sexual exploitation and perpetrating it at the same time. Examples might include a child who is forced to take part in the exploitation of another child under duress, or a child who is forced to introduce other children to their abuser under threats to their family’s safety. These situations require a nuanced approach that recognises and engages with the young person’s perpetration within the context of their own victimisation.

Children who perpetrate child sexual exploitation require a different response to adult perpetrators. Responses may involve criminal justice pathways at times, however every child who displays harmful sexual behaviour should also have their safeguarding and welfare needs actively considered.

Different agencies should work together to:

1. identify any prior victimisation and understand how this has contributed to the perpetration; and
2. map the environments and contexts in which peer-perpetrated child sexual exploitation occurs, looking at the social norms or power dynamics at play which may have influenced the perpetration of abuse. Dependent on the issues emerging, this will likely need both an individually based response and wider work to address harmful social norms or power dynamics that enable the abuse to occur.

7. Safeguarding Actions

7.1 Immediate actions

Where practitioners have concerns that a child is a victim of sexual exploitation, they should discuss with their safeguarding lead. Where it is suspected that the child is at risk of significant harm, a referral should be made to children’s social care and safeguarding processes engaged which may include a multi-agency strategy discussion (see Referrals and Strategy Discussions chapters). Where there is an imminent risk of significant harm, steps must be taken to ensure the child’s immediate safety (see Immediate Protection chapter).

The police should be informed where there is a known or suspected criminal offence. They will be able to advise on issues such as:

• medical examinations;
• evidence gathering;
• interviews in line with Achieving Best Evidence in Criminal Proceedings (Ministry of Justice);
• ensuring the safety of the child and of any other children who may be affected.

In addition to the usual safeguarding processes set out in the Providing Help, Support and Protection section of this site, the following points should be considered in relation to situations involving CSE.

7.2 Multi-agency working

The exploitation of children cannot be addressed by a single agency working alone. Effective collaboration between partners, particularly around information sharing, is essential to the protection of children and stopping offenders. There is a wide range of behaviours and scenarios that may not initially appear related to CSE, but pieced together and put into context, form a bigger picture. Agencies hold different pieces of information and will possess different legislative powers that together help to identify the most appropriate tool for keeping children safe.

The safeguarding response should be collaborative and multi-agency and be underpinned by effective information-sharing. It should encompass preventative, protective (immediate safeguarding) and responsive approaches, and should provide help and ongoing support that is responsive to individual need, strengths-based in approach and available over the longer-term (recognising that disclosure, resilience-building and recovery can take time).

It is important that continued contact by the victim with the perpetrator(s) is not misinterpreted as informed choice or an indication of absence of harm. Practitioners should maintain their relationships with children and young people, and continue to exercise professional curiosity and create safe spaces for disclosure. Continued contact with perpetrators should be seen as part of the complex power dynamic of the abusive relationship, similar to that in some situations of domestic abuse. Practitioners should continue to reach out to victims and not make the offer of services dependent on formal disclosure. Many victims are only able to disclose after the provision of support, often months or even years down the line.

It is vital that people working in frontline roles effectively identify exploitation of children and work together proactively with other agencies to disrupt offending and safeguard victims. This can only be achieved by effective joined-up working and consistent, proactive, sharing of information held by different services. Criminal investigation and prosecution of perpetrators should always be pursued alongside actions to support safeguarding of children and young people exposed to this kind of harm.

Cases of child sexual exploitation frequently cross local authority, police force and even country boundaries in terms of the movement of both perpetrators and victims.

7.3 Information sharing

The timely and effective sharing of information can assist in early identification of sexually exploited young people. Concerns which initially appear to be of a low level when viewed in isolation may be escalated when considered alongside what is known by other agencies. For instance, visits to sexual health services or school nurses may coincide with young people going missing or returning from being missing. Sharing information can enhance decision making by professionals and more holistic needs assessments. At the same time, sharing information in multi-agency contexts cannot be viewed as an intervention in and of itself; it must be linked to protective and / or preventative action. See also Information Sharing and Data Protection chapters.

7.4 Risk assessment

Practitioners should not rely on ‘checklists’ alone but should make an holistic assessment of vulnerability, examining risk and protective factors. Risk assessments should cover different types of sexual exploitation including face-to-face perpetration by adults and also other scenarios such as online or peer perpetrated forms of harm. It is also important to remember that risk assessments only capture risk at the point of assessment and that levels of risk vary over time. See also Assessments chapter.

7.5 Disruption of offender activity

Orders such as Sexual Harm Prevention Orders and Sexual Risk Orders can be used to help disrupt the exploitation of children and young people, as outlined below.

7.5.1 Sexual Harm Prevention Order

Sexual Harm Prevention Orders (SHPOs) can be made in respect of a person convicted of or cautioned for a sexual or violent offence, including where offences are committed overseas. The court must be satisfied that the order is necessary for protecting the public (or any particular members of the public) from sexual harm or protecting children from sexual harm from the defendant outside the United Kingdom.

The Order prohibits the defendant from doing anything described in the order and can include a ban on foreign travel.

An Order can have effect for a fixed period (specified in the order) of at least five years, or until further order. Failure to comply with an Order is an offence punishable by a fine and / or imprisonment.

7.5.2 Sexual Risk Order

Sexual Risk Orders (SROs) can be made where a person has done an act of a sexual nature as a result of which there is reasonable cause to believe that it is necessary for such an order to be made, whether or not they have been convicted. (This is different to a SHPO). The court must be satisfied that the order is necessary for protecting the public, or any particular members of the public, from sexual harm from the defendant; or protecting children or vulnerable adults generally, or any particular children or vulnerable adults, from sexual harm from the defendant outside the United Kingdom.

The Orders prohibit the defendant from doing anything described in the order, and can include a ban on foreign travel. An Order has effect for a fixed period, specified in the order, of not less than two years, or until further order. Failure to comply with an Order is an offence punishable by a fine and / or imprisonment.

See also Guidance: Child Exploitation Disruption Toolkit (Home Office)

8. Prevention

The harmful effects of child sexual exploitation are serious and far reaching for victims, their families and wider communities. Local multi-agency work should be undertaken aimed at prevention and protecting children and young people through awareness raising, including:

• educating practitioners;
• educating children and young people;
• educating parents and carers;
• educating the wider community.

Local multi-agency work should aim to:

• educate all children and young people about the nature and risks of CSE and other forms of related harm (both online and offline) and how to access support;
• recognise that children and young people can be both victims and perpetrators of child sexual exploitation;
• promote the resilience of children and young people and their families and strengthen the protective factors around them;
• identify and support those settings, such as schools and colleges, in which children and young people can form healthy and safe relationships;
• supplement universal initiatives with targeted work with groups of particularly vulnerable children and young people, such as those in care, whilst being careful not to stigmatise specific groups;
• provide complementary messages to parents and carers about risks to their children (online and offline) and how to access support if they have concerns;
• consider the levels of knowledge and understanding of the wider workforce, so that everyone working with children and young people can play their role in prevention; and
• educate the wider community so they can identify and report concerns and seek support.

Although messages and methods of delivery will vary according to the nature and needs of the audience, all education and awareness raising initiatives should:

• be grounded in an evidence-based understanding of child sexual exploitation (both online and offline);
• challenge myths and misconceptions about who is perpetrating and experiencing this form of abuse;
• send a clear message that all forms of child sexual exploitation are abuse;
• recognise the potential overlap between victims and perpetrators;
• challenge any victim blaming and promote the rights of all victims to protection and support;
• provide information on where and how to report concerns and access support; and
• be inclusive and accessible to the intended audience, in terms of language and delivery methods and ensure information is tailored and relevant to diverse groups.